S-V agreement

S-V agreement bisa berarti kesesuaian antara subject dan verb. Jika subject-nya tunggal (singular) maka verb yang digunakan pun yang singular. Sebaliknya, jika subject-nya jamak (plural) maka verb yang digunakan pun yang plural.

Ex:

1.       The earth is round.                          >>           Bumi itu bulat.

 ‘earth’ adalah singular maka kata kerja to be yang dipakai adalah ‘is’.

2.       The sun rises in the east.              >>           Matahari terbit di timur.

‘Sun’ adalah singular maka verb ‘rise’ ditambah ‘s’ jadi ‘rises’.*

3.       Dolphins are mammals.                 >>           Lumba-lumba adalah hewan mamalia.

‘Dolphins’ adalah plural ditandai dengan adanya ‘s’ **setelah ‘dolphin’ maka kata kerja to be yang dipakai adalah ‘are’.

4.       Students study every day.           >>           Para siswa belajar setiap hari.

‘Students’ adalah plural ditandai dengan adanya ‘s’ setelah ‘student’ maka verb yang dipakai adalah ‘study’ tanpa ditambah ‘s’/’es’.

Jika suatu kalimat menggunakan there + to be maka to be yang digunakan tergantung dari kata benda (noun) yang mengikuti.

Ex:

1.       There is a book on the table.      >>           Ada sebuah buku di atas meja.

To be yang digunakan adalah yang singular yakni ‘is’ karena noun yang mengikutinya singular yakni ‘book’.

2.       There are some books under the table. >>           Ada beberapa buku di bawah meja.

To be yang digunakan adalah yang plural yakni ‘are’ karena noun yang mengikutinya plural yakni ‘books’

Subject yang diawali ‘every’ adalah singular. 

Contoh:

Every student is special.

Subject yang merupakan kata benda yang tak dapat dihitung (uncountable noun) adalah singular. 

Contoh:                          

The information on newspaper is important.

               

*tidak semua verb cukup ditambah ‘s’ untuk subject yang singular. Ada beberapa verb yang ditambah ‘es’ seperti fix jadi fixes, study jadi studies. Ada pun verb yang berubah seperti have jadi has.

**tidak semua noun yang plural ditandai dengan ‘s’ di akhir hurufnya. Ada beberapa noun yang plural ditandai dengan ‘es’ seperti box jadi boxes. Ada pun noun yang tidak beraturan seperti person jadi people.

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Many More Phrase

Phrase adalah rangkaian kata yang sudah mengandung suatu pengertian atau satu kesatuan makna, tetapi tidak mempunyai subject dan predicate dan merupakan bagian dari suatu kalimat. Apabila kata-kata dalam phrase tersebut kita pisah, maka mempunyai makna yang berbeda apabila kata-kata tersebut disatukan.

Contoh:

• The girl at the door is my sister.
• The book on the table is mine.
• The man with the red hat is my teacher.
• The boys in the street are students.

Berdasarkan penggunaannya Phrase dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi 3 macam, yaitu:

1.     Noun Phrase.

2.     Adjective Phrase.

3.     Adverbial Phrase.

1. Noun Phrase

Adalah phrase yang digunakan/berfungsi sebagai noun (kata benda).

Contoh:

• Ali went to the store for some books.
• My new car near the tree is old enough.
• The desk in this room is small.

2. Adjective Phrase

Adalah phrase yang digunakan/berfungsi sebagai adjective, memberi sifat kepada noun atau pronoun.

Contoh:

• Books in black and red were the clerk’s delight.
• The girl with long hair is my friend.

3. Adverbial Phrase

Adalah phrase yang digunakan/berfungsi sebagai adverb, yakni menerangkan kata kerja.

Contoh:

• He shouted on house top.
• Henry fishes in the big lake.
• He put the money into his pocket.

Adverbial Phrase dapat juga digunakan untuk menyatakan (mengekspresikan) beberapa hubungan; seperti mengekspresikan hubungan waktu (expressing a relation of time), place (tempat), manner (cara), degree (tingkat/derajat), cause (sebab akibat), purpose (tujuan/maksud), condition (syarat), atau concession or contrast (pertentangan).

Perhatikan contoh-contoh kalimat berikut ini:

1. Menunjukkan Hubungan Waktu.

• She has been ill since two days ago,
• We have been studying English for three years.

2. Menunjukkan Hubungan Tempat.

• I live near the school.
• He hurried into the classroom.
• The children’s toys were all over the room.

3. Menunjukkan Hubungan Cara.

• He cut it with a knife.
• She writes an angry letter in red ink.

4. Menunjukkan Hubungan Tingkat.

• I love her very much.
• You must study English more diligently.

5. Menunjukkan Hubungan Sebab Akibat.

• She was injured because of the bus accident.
• I was late because of the rain.
• Your father is very angry with you for staying out so late.

6. Menunjukkan Hubungan Tujuan.

• She has come to tell you the latest news.
• I leave for Jakarta to buy some books.

7. Menunjukkan Hubungan Pertentangan.

• In spite of the rain he went out.
• Regardless of the weather she always brings an umbrella.

8. Menunjukkan Hubungan Syarat.

• We’ll go if necessary.

Berdasarkan kata-kata pendahuluannya (introductory words or pivot word) phrase dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi 4 macam, yaitu:

1. Prepositional Phrase.
2. Principal Phrase.
3. Infinitive Phrase.
4. Gerund Phrase.
5. Appositive Phrase

1. Prepositional Phrase

Adalah ungkapan yang mengandung prepos’isi (kata depan); dan biasanya dapat dipakai/berfungsi sebagai Noun, Adjective atau. Adverb. Contoh:

• The report will be sent in a few days.
• He is sometimes angry with his wife.
• I’m sorry for having come late.
• The traffic sign points to the left.

2. Principial Phrase

Adalah ungkapan yang mengandung participle yang biasanya berfungsi sebagai adjective.

• Not knowing anyone in town he felt very lonesome.
• Having finished his assignment, he went home.
• Having lost all my money, I went home.
• Student arriving late will not be permitted to enter the lecture hall. (Arriving late menjelaskan student.)
• We heard the children crying.

Arti atau pengertian dari kalimat yang mengandung Participial Phrase dapat menunjukkan:

1. Waktu

a. After (sesudah)

• Having finished all the work, she went home. (Setelah dia  menyelesaikan semua pekerjaan, dia pulang.)

b. While or When ( = ketika)

• Walking along the street, I met a friend whom I had not seen for along time. (Ketika saya berjalan sepanjang jalan, saya bertemu teman yang telah lama saya tidak berjumpa.)

2. Sebab Akibat

• Having worked hard all his life, he decided to take a long vacation. (Karena dia telah bekerja keras sepanjang hidupnya, maka dia memutuskan untuk mengambil liburan panjang)

Tetapi kadang-kadang dapat juga menunjukkan pengertian waktu dan sebab bersama-sama.

• Having eaten too much, he became sleepy. (Karena dia makan terlalu banyak, dia jadi mengantuk)

Perhatikan beberapa contoh berikut:

• Needing some money to buy a book, Ali cashed a check. (= Because he needed some money to buy a book, Ali chased a check.)Being unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle. Unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle. (= Because she was unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle.)

3. Infinitive Phrase

Adalah ungkapan yang mengandung infinitive dan infinitive phrase dapat digunakan/berfungsi sebagai Noun, Adjective atau Adverb.

a. Infinitive phrase sebagai Noun

• To read books means to enlarge one’s horizons.
• To see his children again will make him happy.
• To learn English, you must practice everyday.
• To ask more money would be wrong.
• To do that is difficult for me.

b. Infinitive phrase sebagai Adjective

• He wanted books to juggle acrobatically.
• The poison was strong enough to have killed ten people.
• He is a good man for you to know.

c. Infinitive phrase sebagai Adverb

• He read to enlarge his horizons.
• He has been warned not to do that again.
• I had hoped to see her soon.

4. Gerund Phrase

Adalah ungkapan yang mengandung gerund, dan biasanya hanya berfungsi sebagai Noun.

• Reading books enlarge one’s horizons.
• Playing with guns is dangerous.
• Taking a long walk every day is good exercise.
• Her cleaning the house every day is not necessary.
• The broadcasting by that station comes from the top of a skyscraper.

5. Appositive Phrase

Sebagai pelengkap pembahasan tentang Phrases, berikut ini diuraikan jenis phrases lain yaitu: Appositive Phrases, yang sangat besar peranannya dalam penyusunan kalimat dalam bahasa Inggris.

Appositive Phrases yaitu sekelompok kata yang berfungsi memberi keterangan tambahan kepada subjek atau objek.

Appositive Phrases dapat berupa noun, adjective, adverb, atau prepositional phrases.

• Noun: He had asked Mr. Wilson, a prominent lawyer, to represent him in court.
• Adjective: The professor, unaware that many of his students were asleep, went right on lecturing.
• Adverb: The gentleman over there by the door is our accountant.
• Prepositional phrase: Mr. Harris, in a hurry to get home, a took a taxi from the airport.

Susunan Kalimat dengan Appositive Phrases

1. Perubahan Adjective Clause menjadi Appositive Phrase

Adjective clauses yang mengandung bentuk Be dapat disingkat menjadi Appositive Phrase dengan hanya mempertahankan pelengkap (complement) sesudah Be (noun, adjective, adverb atau preposition at phrases).

• The young man, who is now a lawyer in a large firm, has lost much of his old ambition. Menjadi: The young man, now a lawyer in a large firm, has lost mush of his old ambition.
• The person who is responsible for the damage will have to pay for it. Menjadi: The person responsible for the damage will have to pay for it.

2. Letak Appositive Phrase dalam Kalimat

Letak Appositive Phrase yang paling umum adalah sesudah noun yang diterangkan olehnya, dan terletak di antara dua tanda koma.

• His uncle, a proud and unbending man, refused all help that was offered him.
• Ahmad, eager to get ahead in his career, worked hard day and night.
• The man, aware that he had mad a mistake, tried to correct it.
• The high-powered computer machine, the most powerful of its type, was finally readied for use.

Namun Appositive Phrase yang mengacu (menerangkan) subjek dari main verb dapat pula diletakkan di awal kalimat atau di akhir kalimat.

Di Awal Kalimat

• A proud and unbending man, his uncle refused all help that was offered him.
• Eager to get ahead in his career, Charles worked hard day and night. (Pada posisi seperti ini, appositive phrase sering mengekspresikan sebab akibat, kadang-kadang kelonggaran.)

Di Akhir Kalimat

•  His uncle refused all help that was offered him, a proud and unbending man.
• Charles worked hard day and night, eager to get ahead in his career.

Sekian Dari Ane وَعَلَيْكُمْ السَّلاَمُ وَرَحْمَةُ اللهِ 

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5 Phrase-structure Rules

Some important linguists argue that the structure of a word and the structure of a sentence are akin. Therefore they apply rules which are used in sentence syntax to word syntax or the structure of words. Thus rules of this kind are not only found in Syntax but also in Morphology. The rules we are concerned with are the phrase-structure rules.
The general phrase-structure rule for compounding would be as follows:
A word consists of a word plus a word.
This is rewritten as:
W  W W
We can appy this context free rule to:
Noun compounds



Examples: N  N N : fly-paper; gas-mask; mothball; cottage cheese; hellhound
N  A N : hothouse; sour-dough; greenfly; sickroom
N  P N : undergraduate; outskirts; near-sightedness; underdog
Adjective compounds



Examples
A  N A : world-wide; user-friendly; seaworthy snowblind
A  A A : redhot; north-west; dark green; Roman Catholic
A  P A : overwhelming; outspoken
The syntactic information which is provided by phrase-structure rules:

• there is a constituent which functions as the syntactic head
• the syntactic properties of the head determine the entire compound
• the head is on the right hand side

Compounds with a verbal constituent
A Compound nouns with a verbal constituent
1 verb + noun / adjective



These transparent combinations can be analyzed in terms of predicate argument structure, e.g. scarecrow - to scare (verb) the crows (theme/patient), which will be done more extensively for the examples in C.1.
Examples:
(1) scarecrow
(2) pickpocket
(3) diehard
B Compound verbs
1 verb + verb
V  V V
This type of compounding has got an appositional character because the two verbal elements are simply put together without any further dependency holding between them. These compound verbs usually signify a combination of actions which are closely connected or follow each other within the fraction of a second (cf. example (5)).
Examples:
(4) freeze-dry
(5) drop-kick
2 verb + preposition / preposition + verb



2.1 preposition + verb
In order to distinguish this way of compounding from "pseudo-verbal compounds" (C.2), it is necessary to refer to the semantic level of interpretation. As for the previous compounds, this type of compound verbs consisting of two independent morphemes follows the determinant/determinatum relationship (cf. Marchand 1969, p.96). The verb functions as the determinatum because, as the head of the compound, it refers to the action which is described by the compound. So the verb to outgrow (example (1)) can be treated as a variation of the verb to grow. The other constituent, the preposition, works as a determinant, which specifies the determinatum.
Examples:
(6) outgrow
(7) underestimate
(8) overhear
(9) offload
2.2 verb + preposition
Some linguists like Francis Katamba, for example, argue that phrasal verbs consisting of a verb and a preposition or adverbial particle must be regarded as a compound. In contrast to Katamba, Marchand lists them under the heading phrases and treats them separately as lexicalized items, which means that they are regarded as an entity which can only be modified as a whole. However, phrasal verbs are different from other compounds as the constituents can be separated within a sentence , e.g. He took it over. Apart from that, these phrasal verbs are often nominalized, which form another type of compound nouns or adjectives: N  V P .
Examples:

(10)    a.        to take off                  

        b.        take-off 

(11)    a.        to take over                

        b.        take-over

(12)    a.        to hand out                

        b.        hand-out

C Special forms of compounding involving verbal constituents
1 Verbal compounds
Verbal compounds are sometimes also called synthetic or secondary compounds because they contain a nominal or adjectival head which is derived from a verb . The underlying structure of the compound can be interpreted in terms of predicate argument structure. The nonverbal head serves as an argument (e.g. agent, theme/patient, instrument) of the deverbal head. This kind of compounding is very productive because almost any active or passive phrase can be turned into a verbal compound.
1.1 Compound nouns



Examples:

(18)        bookseller:                 a  seller AGENT of books THEME

                        N'
                           

                N                       N        
                
                                V

                book                sell <Ag,Th>    er

(19) sheep-shearing: shearing VERB sheep THEME
1.2 Compound adjectives



Examples:
(20) God-fearing: fearing VERB God THEME
(21) hand-written: written VERB by hand INSTRUMENT
2 Pseudo-compound verbs
In contrast to the actual compound verbs described under B.2 , the determinant/ determinatum relationship does not apply to the so-called pseudo-compound verbs. In the case of the verb to spotlight the whole compound does not have any determinatum at all because the word means 'to turn spotlights on s.th./s.o.', but the idea of 'to turn s.th. on s.o.' is not expressed in the actual word. As these verbs are derived from compound nouns or adjectives, the verbs themselves cannot be called compounds.
2.1 Conversion
Conversion means that a compound noun is taken over as a verb. This process can also be called zero-derivation and is, strictly speaking, no example of compounding.
Examples:
(13) to spotlight [noun + noun]V = '(to turn) spotlights on ...'
(14) to blacklist [adjective + noun]V = '(to put someone) on a list of suspicious persons'
2.2 Back-formation
These "compound verbs" are derived from synthetic (=verbal) compounds by back-formation. These synthetic compounds, which are nouns or adjectives, are supposed to be based on a compound verb of the same kind. So the compound noun housekeeper is supposed to refer to the originally non-existing compound verb to housekeep. In fact, the process of derivation works the other way round. The ending for the agentive noun (-er) or the participle (-ing, -en/ed) is clipped off the verbal compound to form a pseudo-compound verb. However, these pseudo-compound verbs may act as models of analogous word-formations, which deserve the label "compound", e.g. the formation of to house-sit following the pattern of to baby-sit.
Examples:
(15) to housekeep: derived from housekeeper [noun + verb + er]N
(16) to baby-sit: derived from babysitter [noun + verb + er]N
(17) to sightsee: derived from sightseeing [noun + verb-ing]N
(18) to bottlefeed: derived from bottlefed [noun + verb-en]A
3 Phrases
It is questionable whether it is possible to call these phrases compounds or if it is more suitable to treat them as lexicalized phrases. However, these entities consist of free morphemes which are put together to form a new word. In this respect, they fit a general definition of compounds. Especially in the case of the kinship term -in-law it seems to be justified to think of a deliberate combination of elements which is typical of compounding because any kinship term (mother, father,brother etc.) can be combined with -in-law to form a new left-headed compound.
Examples:
(22) do-it-yourself
(23) mother-in-law
(24) lady-in-waiting
(25) forget-me-not

Phrase structure rules

Phrase-structure rules are a way to describe a given language's syntax and are closely associated with the early stages of Transformational Grammar.^[1][2] They are used to break down a naturallanguage sentence into its constituent parts (also known as syntactic categories) namely phrasal categories and lexical categories (aka parts of speech). A grammar that uses phrase structure rules is a type of phrase structure grammar - except in computer science, where it is known as just a grammar, usually context-free. Phrase structure rules as they are commonly employed operate according to the constituency relation and a grammar that employs phrase structures rules is therefore a constituency grammar and as such, it stands in contrast to dependency grammars, which are based on the dependency relation.

Definition

Phrase structure rules are usually of the following form:

meaning that the constituent  is separated into the two subconstituents  and . Some further examples for English are as follows:

The first rule reads: An S (sentence) consists of an NP (noun phrase) followed by a VP (verb phrase). The second rule reads: A noun phrase consists of a Det (determiner) followed by an N (noun). Some further categories are listed here: AP (adjective phrase), AdvP (adverb phrase), PP (prepositional phrase), etc. Applying the phrase structure rules in a neutral manner, it is possible to generate many proper sentences of English. But it is also quite possible that the rules generate syntactically correct but semantically nonsensical sentences. The following example sentence is notorious in this regard, since it is complete nonsense, even though it is syntactically correct:

Colorless green ideas sleep furiously

This sentence was constructed by Noam Chomsky as an illustration that phrase structure rules are capable of generating syntactically correct but semantically incorrect sentences. Phrase structure rules break sentences down into their constituent parts. These constituents are often represented as tree structures. The tree for Chomsky's famous sentence can be rendered as follows:

A constituent is any word or combination of words that is dominated by a single node. Thus each individual word is a constituent. Further, the subject NP Colorless green ideas, the minor NPgreen ideas, and the VP sleep furiously are constituents. Phrase structure rules and the tree structures that are associated with them are a form of immediate constituent analysis.

[edit]Top down

An important aspect of phrase structure rules is that they view sentence structure from the top down. The category on the left of the arrow is a greater constituent and the immediate constituents to the right of the arrow are lesser constituents. Constituents are successively broken down into their parts as one moves down a list of phrase structure rules for a given sentence. This top-down view of sentence structure stands in contrast to much work done in modern theoretical syntax. In Minimalism^[4] for instance, sentence structure is generated from the bottom up. The operationMerge merges smaller constituents to create greater constituents until the greatest constituent (i.e. the sentence) is reached. In this regard, theoretical syntax abandoned phrase structure rules long ago, although their importance for computational linguistics seems to remain intact.

[edit]Alternative approaches

[edit]Constituency vs. dependency

Phrase structure rules as they are commonly employed result in a view of sentence structure that is constituency-based. Thus grammars that employ phrase structure rules are constituency grammars (=phrase structure grammars), as opposed to dependency grammars,^[5] which view sentence structure as dependency-based. What this means is that for phrase structure rules to be applicable at all, one has to pursue a constituency-based understanding of sentence structure. The constituency relation is a one-to-one-or-more correspondence. For every word in a sentence, there is at least one node in the syntactic structure that corresponds to that word. The dependency relation, in contrast, is a one-to-one relation; for every word in the sentence, there is exactly one node in the syntactic structure that corresponds to that word. The distinction is illustrated with the following trees:

The constituency tree on the left could be generated by phrase structure rules. The sentence S is broken down into smaller and smaller constituent parts. The dependency tree on the right could not, in contrast, be generated by phrase structure rules (at least not as they are commonly interpreted).

[edit]Representational grammars

A number of representational phrase structure theories of grammar never acknowledged phrase structure rules, but have pursued instead an understanding of sentence structure in terms the notion of schema. Here phrase structures are not derived from rules that combine words, but from the specification or instantiation of syntactic schemata or configurations, often expressing some kind of semantic content independently of the specific words that appear in them. This approach is essentially equivalent to a system of phrase structure rules combined with a noncompositionalsemantic theory, since grammatical formalisms based on rewriting rules are generally equivalent in power to those based on substitution into schemata.

So in this type of approach, instead of being derived from the application of a number of phrase structure rules, the sentence Colorless green ideas sleep furiously would be generated by filling the words into the slots of a schema having the following structure:

[NP[ADJ N] VP[V] AP[ADV]]

And which would express the following conceptual content:

X DOES Y IN THE MANNER OF Z

Though they are noncompositional, such models are monotonic. This approach is highly developed within Construction grammar^[6] and has had some influence in Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar^[7] and Lexical Functional Grammar,^[8] the latter two clearly qualifying as phrase structure grammars.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Gambar-Gambar Lucu

19 Maret 2010

Gambar-Gambar Lucu

Artikel mengenai Gambar-gambar lucu kali ini terinspirasi dari artikel sebelumnya, yaitu tentang artikel Cerita Lucu Banget, dimana ketika kita sedang suntuk dan stres, maka tentu perlu hiburan yang sedikit agak iseng, agar suntuk dan stres pun hilang dan akhirnya kita bisa kembali rileks dan mengerjakan pekerjaan dengan baik

Agar langsung kepada pokok pembahasan, yaitu mengenai gambar-gambar lucu yang sudah dijanjikan tersebut, maka berikut adalah gambar-gambar selengkapnya. Namun jangan lupa juga ya kunjungi artikel gambar kartun yang sebelumnya juga sudah diposting diblog kesayangan anda ini...

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