5 Phrase-structure Rules

Some important linguists argue that the structure of a word and the structure of a sentence are akin. Therefore they apply rules which are used in sentence syntax to word syntax or the structure of words. Thus rules of this kind are not only found in Syntax but also in Morphology. The rules we are concerned with are the phrase-structure rules.
The general phrase-structure rule for compounding would be as follows:
A word consists of a word plus a word.
This is rewritten as:
W  W W
We can appy this context free rule to:
Noun compounds



Examples: N  N N : fly-paper; gas-mask; mothball; cottage cheese; hellhound
N  A N : hothouse; sour-dough; greenfly; sickroom
N  P N : undergraduate; outskirts; near-sightedness; underdog
Adjective compounds



Examples
A  N A : world-wide; user-friendly; seaworthy snowblind
A  A A : redhot; north-west; dark green; Roman Catholic
A  P A : overwhelming; outspoken
The syntactic information which is provided by phrase-structure rules:

• there is a constituent which functions as the syntactic head
• the syntactic properties of the head determine the entire compound
• the head is on the right hand side

Compounds with a verbal constituent
A Compound nouns with a verbal constituent
1 verb + noun / adjective



These transparent combinations can be analyzed in terms of predicate argument structure, e.g. scarecrow - to scare (verb) the crows (theme/patient), which will be done more extensively for the examples in C.1.
Examples:
(1) scarecrow
(2) pickpocket
(3) diehard
B Compound verbs
1 verb + verb
V  V V
This type of compounding has got an appositional character because the two verbal elements are simply put together without any further dependency holding between them. These compound verbs usually signify a combination of actions which are closely connected or follow each other within the fraction of a second (cf. example (5)).
Examples:
(4) freeze-dry
(5) drop-kick
2 verb + preposition / preposition + verb



2.1 preposition + verb
In order to distinguish this way of compounding from "pseudo-verbal compounds" (C.2), it is necessary to refer to the semantic level of interpretation. As for the previous compounds, this type of compound verbs consisting of two independent morphemes follows the determinant/determinatum relationship (cf. Marchand 1969, p.96). The verb functions as the determinatum because, as the head of the compound, it refers to the action which is described by the compound. So the verb to outgrow (example (1)) can be treated as a variation of the verb to grow. The other constituent, the preposition, works as a determinant, which specifies the determinatum.
Examples:
(6) outgrow
(7) underestimate
(8) overhear
(9) offload
2.2 verb + preposition
Some linguists like Francis Katamba, for example, argue that phrasal verbs consisting of a verb and a preposition or adverbial particle must be regarded as a compound. In contrast to Katamba, Marchand lists them under the heading phrases and treats them separately as lexicalized items, which means that they are regarded as an entity which can only be modified as a whole. However, phrasal verbs are different from other compounds as the constituents can be separated within a sentence , e.g. He took it over. Apart from that, these phrasal verbs are often nominalized, which form another type of compound nouns or adjectives: N  V P .
Examples:

(10)    a.        to take off                  

        b.        take-off 

(11)    a.        to take over                

        b.        take-over

(12)    a.        to hand out                

        b.        hand-out

C Special forms of compounding involving verbal constituents
1 Verbal compounds
Verbal compounds are sometimes also called synthetic or secondary compounds because they contain a nominal or adjectival head which is derived from a verb . The underlying structure of the compound can be interpreted in terms of predicate argument structure. The nonverbal head serves as an argument (e.g. agent, theme/patient, instrument) of the deverbal head. This kind of compounding is very productive because almost any active or passive phrase can be turned into a verbal compound.
1.1 Compound nouns



Examples:

(18)        bookseller:                 a  seller AGENT of books THEME

                        N'
                           

                N                       N        
                
                                V

                book                sell <Ag,Th>    er

(19) sheep-shearing: shearing VERB sheep THEME
1.2 Compound adjectives



Examples:
(20) God-fearing: fearing VERB God THEME
(21) hand-written: written VERB by hand INSTRUMENT
2 Pseudo-compound verbs
In contrast to the actual compound verbs described under B.2 , the determinant/ determinatum relationship does not apply to the so-called pseudo-compound verbs. In the case of the verb to spotlight the whole compound does not have any determinatum at all because the word means 'to turn spotlights on s.th./s.o.', but the idea of 'to turn s.th. on s.o.' is not expressed in the actual word. As these verbs are derived from compound nouns or adjectives, the verbs themselves cannot be called compounds.
2.1 Conversion
Conversion means that a compound noun is taken over as a verb. This process can also be called zero-derivation and is, strictly speaking, no example of compounding.
Examples:
(13) to spotlight [noun + noun]V = '(to turn) spotlights on ...'
(14) to blacklist [adjective + noun]V = '(to put someone) on a list of suspicious persons'
2.2 Back-formation
These "compound verbs" are derived from synthetic (=verbal) compounds by back-formation. These synthetic compounds, which are nouns or adjectives, are supposed to be based on a compound verb of the same kind. So the compound noun housekeeper is supposed to refer to the originally non-existing compound verb to housekeep. In fact, the process of derivation works the other way round. The ending for the agentive noun (-er) or the participle (-ing, -en/ed) is clipped off the verbal compound to form a pseudo-compound verb. However, these pseudo-compound verbs may act as models of analogous word-formations, which deserve the label "compound", e.g. the formation of to house-sit following the pattern of to baby-sit.
Examples:
(15) to housekeep: derived from housekeeper [noun + verb + er]N
(16) to baby-sit: derived from babysitter [noun + verb + er]N
(17) to sightsee: derived from sightseeing [noun + verb-ing]N
(18) to bottlefeed: derived from bottlefed [noun + verb-en]A
3 Phrases
It is questionable whether it is possible to call these phrases compounds or if it is more suitable to treat them as lexicalized phrases. However, these entities consist of free morphemes which are put together to form a new word. In this respect, they fit a general definition of compounds. Especially in the case of the kinship term -in-law it seems to be justified to think of a deliberate combination of elements which is typical of compounding because any kinship term (mother, father,brother etc.) can be combined with -in-law to form a new left-headed compound.
Examples:
(22) do-it-yourself
(23) mother-in-law
(24) lady-in-waiting
(25) forget-me-not

Phrase structure rules

Phrase-structure rules are a way to describe a given language's syntax and are closely associated with the early stages of Transformational Grammar.^[1][2] They are used to break down a naturallanguage sentence into its constituent parts (also known as syntactic categories) namely phrasal categories and lexical categories (aka parts of speech). A grammar that uses phrase structure rules is a type of phrase structure grammar - except in computer science, where it is known as just a grammar, usually context-free. Phrase structure rules as they are commonly employed operate according to the constituency relation and a grammar that employs phrase structures rules is therefore a constituency grammar and as such, it stands in contrast to dependency grammars, which are based on the dependency relation.

Definition

Phrase structure rules are usually of the following form:

meaning that the constituent  is separated into the two subconstituents  and . Some further examples for English are as follows:

The first rule reads: An S (sentence) consists of an NP (noun phrase) followed by a VP (verb phrase). The second rule reads: A noun phrase consists of a Det (determiner) followed by an N (noun). Some further categories are listed here: AP (adjective phrase), AdvP (adverb phrase), PP (prepositional phrase), etc. Applying the phrase structure rules in a neutral manner, it is possible to generate many proper sentences of English. But it is also quite possible that the rules generate syntactically correct but semantically nonsensical sentences. The following example sentence is notorious in this regard, since it is complete nonsense, even though it is syntactically correct:

Colorless green ideas sleep furiously

This sentence was constructed by Noam Chomsky as an illustration that phrase structure rules are capable of generating syntactically correct but semantically incorrect sentences. Phrase structure rules break sentences down into their constituent parts. These constituents are often represented as tree structures. The tree for Chomsky's famous sentence can be rendered as follows:

A constituent is any word or combination of words that is dominated by a single node. Thus each individual word is a constituent. Further, the subject NP Colorless green ideas, the minor NPgreen ideas, and the VP sleep furiously are constituents. Phrase structure rules and the tree structures that are associated with them are a form of immediate constituent analysis.

[edit]Top down

An important aspect of phrase structure rules is that they view sentence structure from the top down. The category on the left of the arrow is a greater constituent and the immediate constituents to the right of the arrow are lesser constituents. Constituents are successively broken down into their parts as one moves down a list of phrase structure rules for a given sentence. This top-down view of sentence structure stands in contrast to much work done in modern theoretical syntax. In Minimalism^[4] for instance, sentence structure is generated from the bottom up. The operationMerge merges smaller constituents to create greater constituents until the greatest constituent (i.e. the sentence) is reached. In this regard, theoretical syntax abandoned phrase structure rules long ago, although their importance for computational linguistics seems to remain intact.

[edit]Alternative approaches

[edit]Constituency vs. dependency

Phrase structure rules as they are commonly employed result in a view of sentence structure that is constituency-based. Thus grammars that employ phrase structure rules are constituency grammars (=phrase structure grammars), as opposed to dependency grammars,^[5] which view sentence structure as dependency-based. What this means is that for phrase structure rules to be applicable at all, one has to pursue a constituency-based understanding of sentence structure. The constituency relation is a one-to-one-or-more correspondence. For every word in a sentence, there is at least one node in the syntactic structure that corresponds to that word. The dependency relation, in contrast, is a one-to-one relation; for every word in the sentence, there is exactly one node in the syntactic structure that corresponds to that word. The distinction is illustrated with the following trees:

The constituency tree on the left could be generated by phrase structure rules. The sentence S is broken down into smaller and smaller constituent parts. The dependency tree on the right could not, in contrast, be generated by phrase structure rules (at least not as they are commonly interpreted).

[edit]Representational grammars

A number of representational phrase structure theories of grammar never acknowledged phrase structure rules, but have pursued instead an understanding of sentence structure in terms the notion of schema. Here phrase structures are not derived from rules that combine words, but from the specification or instantiation of syntactic schemata or configurations, often expressing some kind of semantic content independently of the specific words that appear in them. This approach is essentially equivalent to a system of phrase structure rules combined with a noncompositionalsemantic theory, since grammatical formalisms based on rewriting rules are generally equivalent in power to those based on substitution into schemata.

So in this type of approach, instead of being derived from the application of a number of phrase structure rules, the sentence Colorless green ideas sleep furiously would be generated by filling the words into the slots of a schema having the following structure:

[NP[ADJ N] VP[V] AP[ADV]]

And which would express the following conceptual content:

X DOES Y IN THE MANNER OF Z

Though they are noncompositional, such models are monotonic. This approach is highly developed within Construction grammar^[6] and has had some influence in Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar^[7] and Lexical Functional Grammar,^[8] the latter two clearly qualifying as phrase structure grammars.

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