Some Mean Article

Articles adalah kata yang digabungkan dengan kata benda (nouns) yang berfungsi untuk membatasi atau memodifikasi kata benda. Dalam Bahasa Inggris, hanya ada 3 article, yaitu a, an dan the. Namun jangan gunakan Article apabila kita ingin membicarakan sesuatu yang bersifat umum.

Jenis - Jenis beberapa Article, mari disemak :

1. INDEFINITE ARTICLE –A – AN (DETERMINER)

“A” dan “AN” termasuk indefinite articles. Keduanya mengacu pada sesuatu yang tidak spesifik terhadap orang yang diajak berbicara. “A”dan “AN” diletakkan sebelum kata benda yang belum pernah Anda sebutkan sebelumnya kepada lawan bicara Anda.

• “I saw an elephant this morning.”
• “I ate a banana for lunch

“A” dan “AN” juga digunakan ketika kita berbicara tentang pekerjaan kita.

• “I am an English teacher.”
• “I am a builder.”

CATATAN

Kita menggunakan a ketika di belakangnya adalah kata benda yang dimulai dengan suara konsonan (BUKAN huruf konsonan). Dan kita menggunakan an ketika kata benda yang berada di belakangnya dimulai dengan bunyi vokal.

• Pada kata “university” kata tersebut dimulai dengan suara “y” dan sepertinya kita mengucapkan “youniversity”. Maka article yang dipakai adalah, “a university” BUKAN “an university”
• Kemudian pada kata “hour” kita menyebutnya seperti kita mengucapkan “our”. Maka, Article yang dipakai adalah “an hour” BUKAN “a hour”

2. DEFINITE ARTICLE –THE (DETERMINER)

Kita memakai ” the” ketika kita tahu betul kalau benda yang sedang kita bicarakan sudah dimengertimaksudnya oleh pendengar kita.

• “The apple you ate was rotten.”
• “Did you lock the car?”

Kita juga harus menggunakan ” the” di depan kata benda yang sudah kita bicarakan sebelumnya. Perhatikan contoh berikut ini.

• “She’s got two children; a girl and a boy. The girl’s eight and the boy’s fourteen.”

Gunakan “the” untuk membicakan titik tertentu pada lokasi geografi.

• the North Pole, the equator

Gunakan “the”untuk di depan nama sungai, Samudra dan laut.

• the Nile, the Pacific, the English channel

Gunakan “the”untuk benda yang cuma ada 1 di dunia ini.

• the sun, the wind, the world, the earth, the White House.

Namun jika kita ingin menggambarkan contoh khusus, maka gunakan “a” atau “an“.

• “I could hear the wind.” / “There’s a cold wind blowing.”
• “What are your plans for the future?” / “She has a promising future ahead of her.”

Kita juga bisa menggunakan “the” untuk mengatakan tentang orang atau benda tertentu yang sudah terkenal.

• “Harry’s Bar is the place to go.”
• “You don’t mean you met the Tony Blair, do you?”

TIDAK ADAARTICLE

Jangan gunakan article di depan kata benda yang bersifat umum.

• Water flows from higher to lower place. (Semua air mengalir dari atas ke bawah, tidak ada air tertentu yang mengalir dari tempat rendah ke tempat tinggi)
• People are worried about rising crime. (Semua orang khawatir akan tingginya kriminalitas)

Jangan gunakan article untuk menyatakan olah raga .

• My son plays football.
• Tennis is expensive.

Jangan gunakan article sebelum kata benda yang tidak dapat dihitung (uncountable nouns) ketika kita membicarakannya secara umum.

• Information is important to any organisation.
• Coffee is bad for you.

Jangan gunakan article di depan nama negara KECUALIterdiri dari kata-kata seperti (state(s), kindom, republic, union). Kingdom, state, republic dan union adalah kata benda, jadi tidak butuh article.

• Tidak ada article – Italy, Mexico, Bolivia
• Gunakan the – the UK, the USA, the Irish Republic
• Perhatikan! the Netherlands

Contoh:INDEFINITE ARTICLE–A–AN(DETERMINER)

Kata sandang  ’a’  digunakan didepan kata benda tunggal yang diawali dengan huruf mati.

A bomb	Sebuah bom	A cigar	Sebatang cerutu
A donkey	Seekor keledai	A fan	Sebuah kipas
A game	Suatu permainan	A hill	Sebuah bukit
A joke	Sebuah lelucon	A key	Sebuah kunci
A man	Seorang kali-laki	A nurse	Seorang juru rawat
A plan	Suatu rencana	A question	Satu pertanyaan
A rider	Seorang pengendara	A spoon	Sebuah sendok
A table	Sebuah meja	A tree	Sebatang pohon
A university	Sebuah universitas	A valley	Sebuah lembah
A window	Sebuah jendela	A xylophone	Sebuah silopon
A year	Satu tahun	A zebra	Seekor zebra

Contoh kalimat :

This is a computer	Ini sebuah komputer
There is a lamp	Ada sebuah lampu
I have a bag and a hat	Saya mempunyai sebuah tas dan sebuah topi
You have a radio	Anda mempunyai sebuah radio
He needs a spoon and a fork	Dia membutuhkan sebuah sendok dan sebuah garpu
She wrote a letter and a postcard	Dia menulis sebuah surat dan sebuah kartu pos
We bought a horse and a cow	Kami membeli seekor kuda dan seekor sapi
They will build a school	Mereka akan membangun sebuah gedung sekolah
He stayed in a Hotel	Dia tinggal di sebuah Hotel

Kata sandang  ’an’  ditempatkan didepan kata yang diawali dengan huruf hidup :

An academy	Sebuah akademi	An accident	Suatu kecelakaan
An actor	Seorang aktor	An actress	Seorang aktris
An aoeroplane	Sebuah pesawat terbang	An angel	Seorang bidadari
An American	Seorang Amerika	An ant	Seekor semut
An arm	Sebuah lengan	An artist	Seorang artis
An eagle	Seekor rajawali	An ear	Sebuah kuping
An earring	Sebuah anting	An egg	Sebutir telur
An elbow	Sebuah sikut	An elephant	Seekor gajah
An enemy	Seorang musuh	An Englishman	Seorang Inggris
An eraser	Sebuah penghapus	An eye	Sebuah mata
An honour	Suatu kehormatan	An hour	Satu jam
An Indonesian	Seorang Indonesia	An institute	Suatu lembaga
An interview	Suatu wawancara	An iron	Sebuah alat setrika
An island	Sebuah pulau	An ivory	Sebuah gading
An oar	Sebuah dayung	An object	Suatu benda
An onion	Sebuah bawang	An opinion	Suatu pendapat
An orange	Sebuah jeruk	An orator	Seorang ahli pidato
An orbit	Suatu orbit	An organ	Suatu organ
An ulcer	Sebuah bisul	An umbrella	Sebuah payung
An underskirt	Satu rok dalam

Perhatikan pemakaian  ’a’  dan  ’an’  seperti berikut ini :

A house	An hour	A hunter	An honour
A uniform	An underskirt

’a’  dan  ’an’  jangan dipakai pada kata benda yang tak dapat dihitung misalnya :

bread, grass, oil, water, wind, ink, meat, butter, powder dll.

Contoh: DEFINITE ARTICLE – THE (DETERMINER)

Kata sandang tertentu adalah  The  (bisa berarti: Itu). Digunakan didepan kata benda tertentu.

The car is beautiful	Mobil itu bagus
The house is large	Rumah itu besar
The school is rather far	Sekolah itu agak jauh
The street is very wide	Jalan itu sangat lebar
The pencil is on the desk	Pensil itu diatas meja
The pen is on the drawer	Pulpen itu di laci
The sun is shining	Matahari itu sedang bersinar
The book is very interesting	Buku itu sangat menarik
The chair is broken	Kursi itu rusak
The boy will be punished	Anak itu akan dihukum
The flowers have died	Bunga-bunga itu telah mati
I’ll mend the bike	Saya akan memperbaiki sepeda itu
She’ll clean the floor	Dia akan membersihkan lantai itu
The plane is in the air	Pesawat terbang itu di angkasa
The bird is in the cage	Burung itu di dalam sangkar
Birds can fly very high in the sky	Burung-burung bisa terbang tinggi di angkasa
There is a mark on the paper	Ada noda di kertas itu
We walked around the field	Kami berjalan mengelilingi lapangan itu
He hit the big boy	Dia menghajar anak yang besar itu
They are standing near the gate	Mereka sedang berdiri di dekat pintu gerbang itu
I’d like to see the horse	Saya ingin melihat kuda itu

The  dipakai untuk nama-nama negara tertentu, gunung-gunung tertentu, bangunan-bangunan tertentu, nama laut, hotel, sungai.

The United State (Amerika Serikat)	The United Kingdom (Kerajaan Inggris)
The philipines (Philipina)	The Himalayas (Gunung Himalaya)
The Alps (Gunung Alpen)	The Borobudur (Candi Borobudur)
The Prambanan (Candi Prambanan)	The sphinx (Di Mesir)
The Great Wall (Tembok Besar di Cina)	The Pacific (Lautan Pasifik)
The Atlantic (Lautan Atlantik)	The Red Sea (Laut Merah)
The Indian Ocean (Lautan Hindia)	The Royar Hotel
The Green Hotel	The Thames (Sungai di Inggris)
The Nile (Sungai Nil di Mesir)	The River Musi (Sungai Musi)

The  tidak bisa digunakan didepan nama jalan :

They live on Raffles Street	Mereka tinggal di Raffles Street
We live on Sudirman Street	Kami tinggal di jalan Sudirman

The  tidak digunakan didepan nama waktu makan :

Breakfast is ready	Sarapan sudah siap
It’s time for lunch	Ini sudah waktunya makan siang
Dinner is at seven	Makan malam pada jam tujuh
Tea is at four o’clock	Minum teh pada jam empat

The  tidak digunakan didepan nama musim :

They travel in summer	Mereka bepergian pada musim panas
Autumn will come soon	Musim rontok akan segera tiba
They stay indoors in winter	Mereka tidak keluar rumah pada musim dingin
Vegetation begins in spring	Tanaman mulai tumbuh pada musim semi

Dalam hal-hal tertentu tidak memakai ’The’ didepan kata benda :

They go to school	Mereka pergi ke sekolah
The go by bus	Mereka pergi dengan bus
Go to bed	Pergilah tidur

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S-V agreement

S-V agreement bisa berarti kesesuaian antara subject dan verb. Jika subject-nya tunggal (singular) maka verb yang digunakan pun yang singular. Sebaliknya, jika subject-nya jamak (plural) maka verb yang digunakan pun yang plural.

Ex:

1.       The earth is round.                          >>           Bumi itu bulat.

 ‘earth’ adalah singular maka kata kerja to be yang dipakai adalah ‘is’.

2.       The sun rises in the east.              >>           Matahari terbit di timur.

‘Sun’ adalah singular maka verb ‘rise’ ditambah ‘s’ jadi ‘rises’.*

3.       Dolphins are mammals.                 >>           Lumba-lumba adalah hewan mamalia.

‘Dolphins’ adalah plural ditandai dengan adanya ‘s’ **setelah ‘dolphin’ maka kata kerja to be yang dipakai adalah ‘are’.

4.       Students study every day.           >>           Para siswa belajar setiap hari.

‘Students’ adalah plural ditandai dengan adanya ‘s’ setelah ‘student’ maka verb yang dipakai adalah ‘study’ tanpa ditambah ‘s’/’es’.

Jika suatu kalimat menggunakan there + to be maka to be yang digunakan tergantung dari kata benda (noun) yang mengikuti.

Ex:

1.       There is a book on the table.      >>           Ada sebuah buku di atas meja.

To be yang digunakan adalah yang singular yakni ‘is’ karena noun yang mengikutinya singular yakni ‘book’.

2.       There are some books under the table. >>           Ada beberapa buku di bawah meja.

To be yang digunakan adalah yang plural yakni ‘are’ karena noun yang mengikutinya plural yakni ‘books’

Subject yang diawali ‘every’ adalah singular. 

Contoh:

Every student is special.

Subject yang merupakan kata benda yang tak dapat dihitung (uncountable noun) adalah singular. 

Contoh:                          

The information on newspaper is important.

               

*tidak semua verb cukup ditambah ‘s’ untuk subject yang singular. Ada beberapa verb yang ditambah ‘es’ seperti fix jadi fixes, study jadi studies. Ada pun verb yang berubah seperti have jadi has.

**tidak semua noun yang plural ditandai dengan ‘s’ di akhir hurufnya. Ada beberapa noun yang plural ditandai dengan ‘es’ seperti box jadi boxes. Ada pun noun yang tidak beraturan seperti person jadi people.

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Many More Phrase

Phrase adalah rangkaian kata yang sudah mengandung suatu pengertian atau satu kesatuan makna, tetapi tidak mempunyai subject dan predicate dan merupakan bagian dari suatu kalimat. Apabila kata-kata dalam phrase tersebut kita pisah, maka mempunyai makna yang berbeda apabila kata-kata tersebut disatukan.

Contoh:

• The girl at the door is my sister.
• The book on the table is mine.
• The man with the red hat is my teacher.
• The boys in the street are students.

Berdasarkan penggunaannya Phrase dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi 3 macam, yaitu:

1.     Noun Phrase.

2.     Adjective Phrase.

3.     Adverbial Phrase.

1. Noun Phrase

Adalah phrase yang digunakan/berfungsi sebagai noun (kata benda).

Contoh:

• Ali went to the store for some books.
• My new car near the tree is old enough.
• The desk in this room is small.

2. Adjective Phrase

Adalah phrase yang digunakan/berfungsi sebagai adjective, memberi sifat kepada noun atau pronoun.

Contoh:

• Books in black and red were the clerk’s delight.
• The girl with long hair is my friend.

3. Adverbial Phrase

Adalah phrase yang digunakan/berfungsi sebagai adverb, yakni menerangkan kata kerja.

Contoh:

• He shouted on house top.
• Henry fishes in the big lake.
• He put the money into his pocket.

Adverbial Phrase dapat juga digunakan untuk menyatakan (mengekspresikan) beberapa hubungan; seperti mengekspresikan hubungan waktu (expressing a relation of time), place (tempat), manner (cara), degree (tingkat/derajat), cause (sebab akibat), purpose (tujuan/maksud), condition (syarat), atau concession or contrast (pertentangan).

Perhatikan contoh-contoh kalimat berikut ini:

1. Menunjukkan Hubungan Waktu.

• She has been ill since two days ago,
• We have been studying English for three years.

2. Menunjukkan Hubungan Tempat.

• I live near the school.
• He hurried into the classroom.
• The children’s toys were all over the room.

3. Menunjukkan Hubungan Cara.

• He cut it with a knife.
• She writes an angry letter in red ink.

4. Menunjukkan Hubungan Tingkat.

• I love her very much.
• You must study English more diligently.

5. Menunjukkan Hubungan Sebab Akibat.

• She was injured because of the bus accident.
• I was late because of the rain.
• Your father is very angry with you for staying out so late.

6. Menunjukkan Hubungan Tujuan.

• She has come to tell you the latest news.
• I leave for Jakarta to buy some books.

7. Menunjukkan Hubungan Pertentangan.

• In spite of the rain he went out.
• Regardless of the weather she always brings an umbrella.

8. Menunjukkan Hubungan Syarat.

• We’ll go if necessary.

Berdasarkan kata-kata pendahuluannya (introductory words or pivot word) phrase dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi 4 macam, yaitu:

1. Prepositional Phrase.
2. Principal Phrase.
3. Infinitive Phrase.
4. Gerund Phrase.
5. Appositive Phrase

1. Prepositional Phrase

Adalah ungkapan yang mengandung prepos’isi (kata depan); dan biasanya dapat dipakai/berfungsi sebagai Noun, Adjective atau. Adverb. Contoh:

• The report will be sent in a few days.
• He is sometimes angry with his wife.
• I’m sorry for having come late.
• The traffic sign points to the left.

2. Principial Phrase

Adalah ungkapan yang mengandung participle yang biasanya berfungsi sebagai adjective.

• Not knowing anyone in town he felt very lonesome.
• Having finished his assignment, he went home.
• Having lost all my money, I went home.
• Student arriving late will not be permitted to enter the lecture hall. (Arriving late menjelaskan student.)
• We heard the children crying.

Arti atau pengertian dari kalimat yang mengandung Participial Phrase dapat menunjukkan:

1. Waktu

a. After (sesudah)

• Having finished all the work, she went home. (Setelah dia  menyelesaikan semua pekerjaan, dia pulang.)

b. While or When ( = ketika)

• Walking along the street, I met a friend whom I had not seen for along time. (Ketika saya berjalan sepanjang jalan, saya bertemu teman yang telah lama saya tidak berjumpa.)

2. Sebab Akibat

• Having worked hard all his life, he decided to take a long vacation. (Karena dia telah bekerja keras sepanjang hidupnya, maka dia memutuskan untuk mengambil liburan panjang)

Tetapi kadang-kadang dapat juga menunjukkan pengertian waktu dan sebab bersama-sama.

• Having eaten too much, he became sleepy. (Karena dia makan terlalu banyak, dia jadi mengantuk)

Perhatikan beberapa contoh berikut:

• Needing some money to buy a book, Ali cashed a check. (= Because he needed some money to buy a book, Ali chased a check.)Being unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle. Unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle. (= Because she was unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle.)

3. Infinitive Phrase

Adalah ungkapan yang mengandung infinitive dan infinitive phrase dapat digunakan/berfungsi sebagai Noun, Adjective atau Adverb.

a. Infinitive phrase sebagai Noun

• To read books means to enlarge one’s horizons.
• To see his children again will make him happy.
• To learn English, you must practice everyday.
• To ask more money would be wrong.
• To do that is difficult for me.

b. Infinitive phrase sebagai Adjective

• He wanted books to juggle acrobatically.
• The poison was strong enough to have killed ten people.
• He is a good man for you to know.

c. Infinitive phrase sebagai Adverb

• He read to enlarge his horizons.
• He has been warned not to do that again.
• I had hoped to see her soon.

4. Gerund Phrase

Adalah ungkapan yang mengandung gerund, dan biasanya hanya berfungsi sebagai Noun.

• Reading books enlarge one’s horizons.
• Playing with guns is dangerous.
• Taking a long walk every day is good exercise.
• Her cleaning the house every day is not necessary.
• The broadcasting by that station comes from the top of a skyscraper.

5. Appositive Phrase

Sebagai pelengkap pembahasan tentang Phrases, berikut ini diuraikan jenis phrases lain yaitu: Appositive Phrases, yang sangat besar peranannya dalam penyusunan kalimat dalam bahasa Inggris.

Appositive Phrases yaitu sekelompok kata yang berfungsi memberi keterangan tambahan kepada subjek atau objek.

Appositive Phrases dapat berupa noun, adjective, adverb, atau prepositional phrases.

• Noun: He had asked Mr. Wilson, a prominent lawyer, to represent him in court.
• Adjective: The professor, unaware that many of his students were asleep, went right on lecturing.
• Adverb: The gentleman over there by the door is our accountant.
• Prepositional phrase: Mr. Harris, in a hurry to get home, a took a taxi from the airport.

Susunan Kalimat dengan Appositive Phrases

1. Perubahan Adjective Clause menjadi Appositive Phrase

Adjective clauses yang mengandung bentuk Be dapat disingkat menjadi Appositive Phrase dengan hanya mempertahankan pelengkap (complement) sesudah Be (noun, adjective, adverb atau preposition at phrases).

• The young man, who is now a lawyer in a large firm, has lost much of his old ambition. Menjadi: The young man, now a lawyer in a large firm, has lost mush of his old ambition.
• The person who is responsible for the damage will have to pay for it. Menjadi: The person responsible for the damage will have to pay for it.

2. Letak Appositive Phrase dalam Kalimat

Letak Appositive Phrase yang paling umum adalah sesudah noun yang diterangkan olehnya, dan terletak di antara dua tanda koma.

• His uncle, a proud and unbending man, refused all help that was offered him.
• Ahmad, eager to get ahead in his career, worked hard day and night.
• The man, aware that he had mad a mistake, tried to correct it.
• The high-powered computer machine, the most powerful of its type, was finally readied for use.

Namun Appositive Phrase yang mengacu (menerangkan) subjek dari main verb dapat pula diletakkan di awal kalimat atau di akhir kalimat.

Di Awal Kalimat

• A proud and unbending man, his uncle refused all help that was offered him.
• Eager to get ahead in his career, Charles worked hard day and night. (Pada posisi seperti ini, appositive phrase sering mengekspresikan sebab akibat, kadang-kadang kelonggaran.)

Di Akhir Kalimat

•  His uncle refused all help that was offered him, a proud and unbending man.
• Charles worked hard day and night, eager to get ahead in his career.

Sekian Dari Ane وَعَلَيْكُمْ السَّلاَمُ وَرَحْمَةُ اللهِ 

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5 Phrase-structure Rules

Some important linguists argue that the structure of a word and the structure of a sentence are akin. Therefore they apply rules which are used in sentence syntax to word syntax or the structure of words. Thus rules of this kind are not only found in Syntax but also in Morphology. The rules we are concerned with are the phrase-structure rules.
The general phrase-structure rule for compounding would be as follows:
A word consists of a word plus a word.
This is rewritten as:
W  W W
We can appy this context free rule to:
Noun compounds



Examples: N  N N : fly-paper; gas-mask; mothball; cottage cheese; hellhound
N  A N : hothouse; sour-dough; greenfly; sickroom
N  P N : undergraduate; outskirts; near-sightedness; underdog
Adjective compounds



Examples
A  N A : world-wide; user-friendly; seaworthy snowblind
A  A A : redhot; north-west; dark green; Roman Catholic
A  P A : overwhelming; outspoken
The syntactic information which is provided by phrase-structure rules:

• there is a constituent which functions as the syntactic head
• the syntactic properties of the head determine the entire compound
• the head is on the right hand side

Compounds with a verbal constituent
A Compound nouns with a verbal constituent
1 verb + noun / adjective



These transparent combinations can be analyzed in terms of predicate argument structure, e.g. scarecrow - to scare (verb) the crows (theme/patient), which will be done more extensively for the examples in C.1.
Examples:
(1) scarecrow
(2) pickpocket
(3) diehard
B Compound verbs
1 verb + verb
V  V V
This type of compounding has got an appositional character because the two verbal elements are simply put together without any further dependency holding between them. These compound verbs usually signify a combination of actions which are closely connected or follow each other within the fraction of a second (cf. example (5)).
Examples:
(4) freeze-dry
(5) drop-kick
2 verb + preposition / preposition + verb



2.1 preposition + verb
In order to distinguish this way of compounding from "pseudo-verbal compounds" (C.2), it is necessary to refer to the semantic level of interpretation. As for the previous compounds, this type of compound verbs consisting of two independent morphemes follows the determinant/determinatum relationship (cf. Marchand 1969, p.96). The verb functions as the determinatum because, as the head of the compound, it refers to the action which is described by the compound. So the verb to outgrow (example (1)) can be treated as a variation of the verb to grow. The other constituent, the preposition, works as a determinant, which specifies the determinatum.
Examples:
(6) outgrow
(7) underestimate
(8) overhear
(9) offload
2.2 verb + preposition
Some linguists like Francis Katamba, for example, argue that phrasal verbs consisting of a verb and a preposition or adverbial particle must be regarded as a compound. In contrast to Katamba, Marchand lists them under the heading phrases and treats them separately as lexicalized items, which means that they are regarded as an entity which can only be modified as a whole. However, phrasal verbs are different from other compounds as the constituents can be separated within a sentence , e.g. He took it over. Apart from that, these phrasal verbs are often nominalized, which form another type of compound nouns or adjectives: N  V P .
Examples:

(10)    a.        to take off                  

        b.        take-off 

(11)    a.        to take over                

        b.        take-over

(12)    a.        to hand out                

        b.        hand-out

C Special forms of compounding involving verbal constituents
1 Verbal compounds
Verbal compounds are sometimes also called synthetic or secondary compounds because they contain a nominal or adjectival head which is derived from a verb . The underlying structure of the compound can be interpreted in terms of predicate argument structure. The nonverbal head serves as an argument (e.g. agent, theme/patient, instrument) of the deverbal head. This kind of compounding is very productive because almost any active or passive phrase can be turned into a verbal compound.
1.1 Compound nouns



Examples:

(18)        bookseller:                 a  seller AGENT of books THEME

                        N'
                           

                N                       N        
                
                                V

                book                sell <Ag,Th>    er

(19) sheep-shearing: shearing VERB sheep THEME
1.2 Compound adjectives



Examples:
(20) God-fearing: fearing VERB God THEME
(21) hand-written: written VERB by hand INSTRUMENT
2 Pseudo-compound verbs
In contrast to the actual compound verbs described under B.2 , the determinant/ determinatum relationship does not apply to the so-called pseudo-compound verbs. In the case of the verb to spotlight the whole compound does not have any determinatum at all because the word means 'to turn spotlights on s.th./s.o.', but the idea of 'to turn s.th. on s.o.' is not expressed in the actual word. As these verbs are derived from compound nouns or adjectives, the verbs themselves cannot be called compounds.
2.1 Conversion
Conversion means that a compound noun is taken over as a verb. This process can also be called zero-derivation and is, strictly speaking, no example of compounding.
Examples:
(13) to spotlight [noun + noun]V = '(to turn) spotlights on ...'
(14) to blacklist [adjective + noun]V = '(to put someone) on a list of suspicious persons'
2.2 Back-formation
These "compound verbs" are derived from synthetic (=verbal) compounds by back-formation. These synthetic compounds, which are nouns or adjectives, are supposed to be based on a compound verb of the same kind. So the compound noun housekeeper is supposed to refer to the originally non-existing compound verb to housekeep. In fact, the process of derivation works the other way round. The ending for the agentive noun (-er) or the participle (-ing, -en/ed) is clipped off the verbal compound to form a pseudo-compound verb. However, these pseudo-compound verbs may act as models of analogous word-formations, which deserve the label "compound", e.g. the formation of to house-sit following the pattern of to baby-sit.
Examples:
(15) to housekeep: derived from housekeeper [noun + verb + er]N
(16) to baby-sit: derived from babysitter [noun + verb + er]N
(17) to sightsee: derived from sightseeing [noun + verb-ing]N
(18) to bottlefeed: derived from bottlefed [noun + verb-en]A
3 Phrases
It is questionable whether it is possible to call these phrases compounds or if it is more suitable to treat them as lexicalized phrases. However, these entities consist of free morphemes which are put together to form a new word. In this respect, they fit a general definition of compounds. Especially in the case of the kinship term -in-law it seems to be justified to think of a deliberate combination of elements which is typical of compounding because any kinship term (mother, father,brother etc.) can be combined with -in-law to form a new left-headed compound.
Examples:
(22) do-it-yourself
(23) mother-in-law
(24) lady-in-waiting
(25) forget-me-not

Phrase structure rules

Phrase-structure rules are a way to describe a given language's syntax and are closely associated with the early stages of Transformational Grammar.^[1][2] They are used to break down a naturallanguage sentence into its constituent parts (also known as syntactic categories) namely phrasal categories and lexical categories (aka parts of speech). A grammar that uses phrase structure rules is a type of phrase structure grammar - except in computer science, where it is known as just a grammar, usually context-free. Phrase structure rules as they are commonly employed operate according to the constituency relation and a grammar that employs phrase structures rules is therefore a constituency grammar and as such, it stands in contrast to dependency grammars, which are based on the dependency relation.

Definition

Phrase structure rules are usually of the following form:

meaning that the constituent  is separated into the two subconstituents  and . Some further examples for English are as follows:

The first rule reads: An S (sentence) consists of an NP (noun phrase) followed by a VP (verb phrase). The second rule reads: A noun phrase consists of a Det (determiner) followed by an N (noun). Some further categories are listed here: AP (adjective phrase), AdvP (adverb phrase), PP (prepositional phrase), etc. Applying the phrase structure rules in a neutral manner, it is possible to generate many proper sentences of English. But it is also quite possible that the rules generate syntactically correct but semantically nonsensical sentences. The following example sentence is notorious in this regard, since it is complete nonsense, even though it is syntactically correct:

Colorless green ideas sleep furiously

This sentence was constructed by Noam Chomsky as an illustration that phrase structure rules are capable of generating syntactically correct but semantically incorrect sentences. Phrase structure rules break sentences down into their constituent parts. These constituents are often represented as tree structures. The tree for Chomsky's famous sentence can be rendered as follows:

A constituent is any word or combination of words that is dominated by a single node. Thus each individual word is a constituent. Further, the subject NP Colorless green ideas, the minor NPgreen ideas, and the VP sleep furiously are constituents. Phrase structure rules and the tree structures that are associated with them are a form of immediate constituent analysis.

[edit]Top down

An important aspect of phrase structure rules is that they view sentence structure from the top down. The category on the left of the arrow is a greater constituent and the immediate constituents to the right of the arrow are lesser constituents. Constituents are successively broken down into their parts as one moves down a list of phrase structure rules for a given sentence. This top-down view of sentence structure stands in contrast to much work done in modern theoretical syntax. In Minimalism^[4] for instance, sentence structure is generated from the bottom up. The operationMerge merges smaller constituents to create greater constituents until the greatest constituent (i.e. the sentence) is reached. In this regard, theoretical syntax abandoned phrase structure rules long ago, although their importance for computational linguistics seems to remain intact.

[edit]Alternative approaches

[edit]Constituency vs. dependency

Phrase structure rules as they are commonly employed result in a view of sentence structure that is constituency-based. Thus grammars that employ phrase structure rules are constituency grammars (=phrase structure grammars), as opposed to dependency grammars,^[5] which view sentence structure as dependency-based. What this means is that for phrase structure rules to be applicable at all, one has to pursue a constituency-based understanding of sentence structure. The constituency relation is a one-to-one-or-more correspondence. For every word in a sentence, there is at least one node in the syntactic structure that corresponds to that word. The dependency relation, in contrast, is a one-to-one relation; for every word in the sentence, there is exactly one node in the syntactic structure that corresponds to that word. The distinction is illustrated with the following trees:

The constituency tree on the left could be generated by phrase structure rules. The sentence S is broken down into smaller and smaller constituent parts. The dependency tree on the right could not, in contrast, be generated by phrase structure rules (at least not as they are commonly interpreted).

[edit]Representational grammars

A number of representational phrase structure theories of grammar never acknowledged phrase structure rules, but have pursued instead an understanding of sentence structure in terms the notion of schema. Here phrase structures are not derived from rules that combine words, but from the specification or instantiation of syntactic schemata or configurations, often expressing some kind of semantic content independently of the specific words that appear in them. This approach is essentially equivalent to a system of phrase structure rules combined with a noncompositionalsemantic theory, since grammatical formalisms based on rewriting rules are generally equivalent in power to those based on substitution into schemata.

So in this type of approach, instead of being derived from the application of a number of phrase structure rules, the sentence Colorless green ideas sleep furiously would be generated by filling the words into the slots of a schema having the following structure:

[NP[ADJ N] VP[V] AP[ADV]]

And which would express the following conceptual content:

X DOES Y IN THE MANNER OF Z

Though they are noncompositional, such models are monotonic. This approach is highly developed within Construction grammar^[6] and has had some influence in Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar^[7] and Lexical Functional Grammar,^[8] the latter two clearly qualifying as phrase structure grammars.

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